Erik Erikson (1963) has proposed a theory which is often referred to as a psychological theory of personality, because it focuses on the development of the personality across the life-span, emphasizing the interplay between psychological and social factors. Unlike other theories, which primarily focus on early childhood experiences or biological drives, Erikson’s theory encompasses the entire life span.

Erik Erikson
Erikson institute, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

From the Freudian framework, his theory assumes that there is an inborn time point that initiates stages in the development of the personality. His theory also includes the three-part structure (id, ego, and superego) of the personality.

He proposed eight stages of ego development. Each stage involves two opposing ego qualities, one of which is relatively positive while the other is relatively negative. During each stage, the individual faces a specific challenge — called a "crisis" — of solving the crisis in favor of the positive quality. Here are details of each of the stages.

(1) Basic Trust vs. Basic Mistrust (Birth to 1 year)

During the first year of life, parents play a major role in the child's care and developing a sense of trust. In this time, the quality of the nurturant relationship is more important than the quantity and requires affection and warmth.

The child will develop optimism, trust, confidence and security if properly cared and handled.

If a child does not experience trust, he or she may develop insecurity, worthlessness and general mistrust of the world.

🔍 Trust is the basis of a secure personality.
🔍 Warm, responsive caregiving fosters trust.
🔍 Mistrust results from harsh or inconsistent care.

1-year-old baby

(2) Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1 to 3 years)

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s theory. This stage occurs between 1 to 3 years. Children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of autonomy—which is the sense of mastering tasks and doing things themselves.

If this is supported, children will become more confident. They will build their self-trust, initiative, sense of self-control, and explore new surroundings more freely.

On the other hand, if children are overly controlled, they may begin to feel ashamed and have low self-esteem to learn certain skills.

🔍 Toilet training plays an important role in this stage.

(3) Initiative vs. Guilt (4 to 5 years)

During this stage, children experience a desire to copy the adults around and initiate activities. They can feed themselves, climbs up and down stairs, and ride tricycles, and ask many questions like, “Where do babies come from?”
Stage is also involved in the Oedipus complex or the Electra complex and resolves this by identification with same sexed parents.

In this stage, when parents or caregivers support children to take initiative, they can start planning activities, make up games.

But if adults discourage or criticize their initiatives and efforts, children may feel guilty for their desires and initiatives.

🔍 Main Question: Is it okay for me to do, move, and act?
🔍 Stage of purpose development
🔍 Play age

(4) Industry vs. Inferiority (6 to 11 years)

At this stage, the individual enters the school, and this stage allows the child to engage in productive tasks. Through successful production of things, a sense of industry is attained.

This is also a stage of social development. During this time, children are entering the competitive world in the elementary school years. They have peers with whom they compare themselves and determine their strengths and weaknesses.

The conflict is: if children are encouraged to develop skills, they gain a sense of industry & a feeling of competence,

but if children receive negative feedback on their efforts, meet with failures, they develop a sense of inferiority.

🔍 School age
🔍 Stage of skill learning
🔍 Significant people: School teachers, peers

(5) Ego identity vs. Role confusion (12 to 18 years)

This is the stage adolescents begin with their identity crisis, establishing a search for a sense of self and personal identity. They establish a sense of who I am and where I belong; they develop a sense of identity.

🔍 Adolescence
🔍 Stage of fidelity development
🔍 Main question: Who am I?

(5) Ego identity vs. Role confusion (12 to 18 years)

This is the stage adolescents begin with their identity crisis, establishing a search for a sense of self and personal identity. They establish a sense of who am I? and where I belong; they develop a sense of identity. "Where am I going?" This increased cognitive capacity allows him to consider complex issues like sexual orientation, desire for a family, religious ideals, etc. They may form social and personal roles that lead him to an increasingly independent individual.

In this stage, the conflict is whether adolescents are supported and given the freedom to explore different roles, they may develop a strong sense of self and a firm self-identity and independence.
On the other hand, if they are restricted to doing these, they may experience role confusion.

🔍 Ego Identity

(6) Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation – Love (18 to 35 years)

In this stage, most individuals have begun to establish a relatively permanent interpersonal bond i.e., intimacy. Erikson is referring to more than sexual relationships here. He means the ability to care about and share with other people, without having to abandon one’s own identity.

They begin to settle down and start families.

The conflict is, individuals who successfully navigate this stage are more likely to form intimacy i.e. reciprocal relationships with others. But if individuals struggle to form these close relationships, they may experience isolation.

🔍 Young adulthood

(7) Generativity vs. Self-absorption (35 to 55 or 65 years)

During this stage, career work becomes the most important thing, and this stage is along with family. In this time, people take greater responsibility and do creative things for the next generation – the basis for the term generativity.

In this stage, the conflict is if individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world (through raising children or contributing to good ideas in society), they will feel a sense of generativity.
But if they feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or creative tasks, they may experience self-absorption.

🔍 Middle adulthood
🔍 Parenting, productivity, creativity

(8) Integrity vs. Despair (55 or 65 to death)

Integrity vs. despair is the last stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of development. During this time, if an individual can successfully resolve each crisis with the positive ego quality, he or she will be able to look back upon his life with a sense of dignity and self-satisfaction in his accomplishments. This is what Erikson means by ego integrity.

On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor decisions, missed opportunities, they may experience a sense of despair.

🔍 Late Adulthood
🔍 Meaning, life review, reflection

Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory outlines eight stages of human development from infancy to late adulthood. At each stage, individuals face a key psychosocial conflict that must be resolved to develop a healthy personality and acquire essential ego strengths. Successful resolution leads to psychological growth and well-being, while failure may result in emotional difficulties and challenges in future stages.

These stages highlight the interaction between individual psychological growth and social environment, making Erikson’s theory a lifespan approach to personality development. Unlike Freud, Erikson places greater emphasis on social relationships, cultural expectations, and personal identity formation throughout life.

In short, Erikson’s theory helps us understand how humans evolve emotionally and socially across their lives, with each stage building upon the outcomes of the previous ones.

Readings:

  1. Crider, A. B., Goethals, G. R., Kavanaugh, R. D., & Solomon, P. R. (1989). Psychology (3rd ed.).
  2. Sarafino, E. P., & Armstrong, J. W. (1986). Child and adolescent development. Wadsworth Publishing.