Cultural Deviance Theory

Cultural Deviance Theory suggests that crime occurs because certain groups or subcultures develop values and norms that differ from those of mainstream society. Often, these subcultures form in disadvantaged, marginalized, or low-income communities where people face social and economic challenges. As a result, alternative cultural systems develop—systems that may support or even encourage criminal behavior.

This theory argues that people living in these areas do not commit crime because they are inherently bad. Instead, they are raised in an environment where crime is seen as normal, acceptable, or sometimes necessary for survival.

The strongest early contributions to this theory came from Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, who examined crime patterns in urban neighborhoods. They found that crime was highest in areas with:

  • Poverty
  • Social disorganization
  • Limited access to education or legitimate job opportunities

According to their research, individuals growing up in these neighborhoods are exposed to subcultural values that justify criminal behavior. Children and teenagers observe older community members engaging in deviant activities and learn to accept them as normal.

Crime happens because subcultural norms conflict with the laws of the larger society. In these environments, activities such as theft, gang involvement, or violence may be taught as useful or necessary for gaining status, protection, or economic support.

An example of cultural deviance is the rise of gang culture in low-income urban neighborhoods. Young people in these communities may see gang members earning respect and money through illegal means such as drug dealing or theft. With limited job opportunities and high exposure to crime, a teenager might view gang membership as the best or only path to safety, social status, and financial stability. Over time, these behaviors and beliefs become part of the community culture, passed down from one generation to the next.

 

Cultural Transmission Theory of Crime

The Cultural Transmission Theory, developed by Edwin Sutherland, explains that criminal behavior is learned, not inherited. This theory argues that people learn crime in the same way they learn normal social behavior—through communication and interaction. Sutherland believed that criminal values, skills, and motivations are passed from one person to another within specific groups or subcultures.

Key Components

1. Learning Through Interaction

Individuals learn criminal behavior by interacting with people close to them—family members, friends, peers, or community groups. These interactions teach:

  • How to commit crimes
  • Why certain crimes are acceptable
  • Techniques and skills needed for criminal acts

This learning process is similar to how people learn language, customs, or social etiquette.

2. Differential Association

One of Sutherland’s most important ideas is differential association. According to this concept, a person is more likely to commit crime if they are exposed to more people who support criminal behavior than those who follow the law.

For example, a teenager who spends most of their time with friends involved in theft or drug use will likely adopt similar behaviors because they receive more messages that justify crime.

3. Transmission of Criminal Values

Some communities or subcultures develop shared beliefs that support criminal behavior. These beliefs are passed down from one generation to the next, creating a long-term pattern of crime. This process explains why certain neighborhoods have consistently high crime rates over decades.

4. Exposure to Criminal Definitions

Sutherland also explained that people learn "definitions" that influence their actions. If someone hears statements like:

  • “Stealing is necessary for survival”
  • “You must fight to earn respect”
  • “Police are the enemy”

they are more likely to see crime as acceptable. When positive definitions of crime outweigh negative ones, individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activity.

 

Control Theory of Crime

Control Theory, developed by sociologist Travis Hirschi, argues that people are naturally inclined to commit crime. However, most individuals do not engage in criminal behavior because their social bonds act as controls. These bonds connect people to society and discourage them from breaking rules.

The theory suggests that crime occurs when these social bonds become weak or broken. When individuals feel disconnected from society, they have fewer reasons to follow laws and social expectations.

The Four Elements of Social Bond

Hirschi identified four important elements that prevent people from engaging in crime:

  1. Attachment – Emotional bonds with family, friends, teachers, and other people. Strong attachments make individuals care about how their actions affect others.
  2. Commitment – Investment in goals such as education, career, or reputation. People with strong commitments avoid crime because they have more to lose.
  3. Involvement – Participation in activities like school, work, or sports. Being busy reduces the time and opportunity for criminal behavior.
  4. Belief – Acceptance of social rules, values, and laws as important. Those who believe in societal norms are less likely to break them.

When these bonds are strong, individuals stay connected to society and avoid crime. When they are weak, the likelihood of criminal behavior increases because the person has less to lose.

 

Self-Control Theory of Crime

Self-Control Theory, developed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi, focuses on the individual rather than society. This theory argues that low self-control is the main cause of criminal behavior.

People with low self-control tend to be:

  • Impulsive
  • Self-centered
  • Risk-taking
  • Easily angered
  • Focused on short-term rewards

Because of these traits, they may engage in criminal acts without thinking about long-term consequences.

According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, self-control is mostly shaped during early childhood. Parenting plays a crucial role. Children who grow up with:

  • Poor supervision
  • Inconsistent discipline
  • Neglect or lack of care

are more likely to develop low self-control.

Once formed, self-control is believed to remain stable throughout a person’s life. This means that a child with low self-control is more likely to engage in impulsive or criminal behaviors as a teenager and adult.

Crime happens because individuals with low self-control choose immediate pleasure or benefits without considering the consequences.

 

Labeling Theory of Crime

Labeling Theory, associated with Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert, explains crime as a result of societal reactions rather than the behavior itself. This theory suggests that no action is inherently criminal; instead, behavior becomes deviant only when society labels it as such.

For example, two people might commit the same act, but only one might be labeled as a criminal based on stereotypes, biases, or social power.

1. Primary Deviance

This includes minor or first-time rule-breaking acts that may not lead to serious consequences. Example: A teenager skipping school might not be punished or labeled harshly. These acts are often temporary and do not affect a person’s self-image.

2. Secondary Deviance

Secondary deviance occurs after society labels a person as "criminal" or "deviant." When this happens:

  • The individual may internalize the label
  • Society may reject or stigmatize them
  • Opportunities such as jobs or education may be limited

As a result, the individual may continue or increase criminal behavior because they begin to see themselves through the label. This becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Labeling Theory highlights how the criminal justice system, social reactions, and stigma can push individuals deeper into criminal behavior rather than rehabilitating them.

 

Radical Theory of Crime

Radical Theory, strongly linked to Marxist criminology, argues that crime is a product of social inequality created by the capitalist system. According to radical theorists, society is divided into two main groups:

  1. The ruling class (wealthy, powerful)
  2. The working or lower class (poor, marginalized)

The ruling class controls economic resources, political systems, and even the legal system. Because of this power, they shape laws in ways that protect their wealth and punish the poor.

Key Ideas of Radical Theory

1. Crime is a result of social inequality: Radical theorists believe that capitalism naturally produces unequal access to resources, opportunities, and wealth. This inequality creates frustration, poverty, and alienation among the lower class, pushing some individuals toward crime as a means of survival or resistance.

2. The legal system protects the powerful: According to radical theory, laws are not neutral. They are designed to serve the interests of the wealthy. For example: Crimes committed by poor people (theft, street crime) are punished harshly. Crimes committed by wealthy people (corporate fraud, tax evasion) are often ignored or punished lightly. This shows a clear bias in how laws are enforced.

3. The poor are more heavily policed: Radical theorists argue that law enforcement targets marginalized groups more often. Neighborhoods with poverty face higher police presence, leading to more arrests and punishments for minor offenses. Meanwhile, wealthy groups have greater protection and legal advantages.

4. Capitalism creates the conditions for crime

Capitalism leads to:

  • Poverty
  • Unemployment
  • Exploitation
  • Alienation

These conditions increase crime rates among disadvantaged groups. Radical theory argues that to truly reduce crime, society must address these root causes.

 

Conflict Theory of Crime

Conflict Theory, inspired by Karl Marx and later developed by criminologists like George Vold and Richard Quinney, also focuses on inequality and power struggles. However, while radical theory emphasizes capitalism specifically, conflict theory takes a broader view.

Conflict theory argues that society is made up of groups competing for power, resources, and influence. Crime happens because different groups—social classes, ethnic groups, political groups—have conflicting interests.

Key Ideas of Conflict Theory

1. Laws reflect the interests of dominant groups: According to conflict theorists, laws are created by powerful groups to control the less powerful. These groups use the legal system to maintain their privileges. For example: Laws may be designed to protect property, benefiting the wealthy. Certain behaviors of minority or lower-status groups may be criminalized.

2. Crime arises from social conflict: When groups struggle over limited resources, tensions arise. These conflicts can lead to:

  • Protests
  • Violence
  • Rule-breaking
  • Resistance to authority

Crime is therefore seen as a natural outcome of competition and inequality in society.

3. The powerless are labeled as criminals: Conflict theory argues that marginalized groups are more likely to be defined as criminal because they lack the power to resist negative labels. Meanwhile, the powerful can avoid being labeled criminal even when they commit harmful acts.

4. The criminal justice system favors the powerful: Courts, lawmakers, and law enforcement often reflect the values and interests of dominant groups. As a result:

  • Certain crimes (e.g., corporate crimes) are not punished strictly
  • Minor crimes committed by the poor receive harsh punishment

This selective enforcement reflects ongoing power struggles.

 

References (APA 7)

  1. Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance. Free Press.
  2. Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford University Press.
  3. Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of delinquency. University of California Press.
  4. Lemert, E. M. (1951). Social pathology: A systematic approach to the theory of sociopathic behavior. McGraw-Hill.
  5. Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1967). The Communist manifesto. Penguin Books.
  6. Quinney, R. (1974). Critique of legal order: Crime control in capitalist society. Transaction Publishers.
  7. Shaw, C. R., & McKay, H. D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas. University of Chicago Press.
  8. Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of criminology (4th ed.). J. B. Lippincott.
  9. Taylor, I., Walton, P., & Young, J. (1973). The new criminology: For a social theory of deviance. Routledge.
  10. Vold, G. B., Bernard, T. J., & Snipes, J. B. (2002). Theoretical criminology (5th ed.). Oxford University Press.